e.g. mhealth
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As of April 2022, 24% of COVID-19 mortality, or 234,000 deaths, was vaccine-preventable [2], and misinformation and disinformation cost the United States between US $50,000,000 and US $300,000,000 each day during the pandemic in health care spending and economic losses [3]. These impacts demonstrated the necessity of addressing misinformation as part of public health responses [4].
JMIR Infodemiology 2025;5:e67119
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Accordingly, findings can be used in misinformation, disinformation, and malinformation, as defined in Table 1.
Council of Europe definitions [14].
Unlike misinformation and disinformation, malinformation does not depend on false information, but instead leverages plausible and accurate—or at least arguably accurate—information presented either without context or in an incorrect context to lead those encountering it to false or misleading impressions and conclusions.
J Med Internet Res 2025;27:e64679
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Some of the hashtags have to do with conspiracy theories (#conspiracytheory, #disinformation, and #propaganda), media (#qanonnfoxnews, #propaganda, and #fakenews), and others in a derogatory tone (#covidiot, #plandemic, and #plandemicdocumentary). On the other hand, in the second and fifth communities, the numbers of bots are higher.
JMIR Infodemiology 2025;5:e50021
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Understanding and Combating Misinformation: An Evolutionary Perspective
Disinformation is false information deliberately created with the intent to deceive or cause harm. This is the most insidious type, as it is crafted with malicious purposes, such as manipulating public opinion or discrediting individuals or groups.
These categories help differentiate the various ways in which information can be manipulated or fabricated. Recognizing these distinctions is crucial for developing tailored strategies to counter each type effectively.
JMIR Infodemiology 2024;4:e65521
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In the case of social media, there is misinformation (incorrect information) and disinformation (deliberately inaccurate information) on the care of patients that could be magnified, particularly under stressed circumstances, such as a devastating pandemic. X/Twitter responded to this concern by flagging potentially concerning information and removing 11,230 accounts because of misinformation [44].
JMIR Infodemiology 2024;4:e56675
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However, despite the urgency we face, governmental actions are hindered by, among other factors, disinformation and misinformation [3]. Indeed, disinformation and misinformation create confusion within the population, foster skepticism toward scientific knowledge [4,5] and undermine public support for climate change mitigation policies [6].
Communications regarding climate change are known to be prone to misinformation and disinformation [7].
JMIR Res Protoc 2024;13:e59345
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Information voids (ie, lack of accurate information on a specific topic from credible sources), misinformation (ie, inaccurate information), and disinformation (ie, inaccurate information designed to achieve an agenda) have been hallmarks of the COVID-19 infodemic [2-4].
JMIR Public Health Surveill 2024;10:e51909
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The Dual Nature of AI in Information Dissemination: Ethical Considerations
There are valid concerns that artificial intelligence (AI) systems could be used to produce compelling disinformation en masse [6-9]. In fact, AI tools could be used to either accelerate disinformation spreading, or produce the (disinformation) content, or both. The consequences can range from undermining trust in institutions, including public health institutions [10,11], and exacerbating social polarization to directly impacting public health outcomes and democratic processes [12,13].
JMIR AI 2024;3:e53505
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