Understanding Appropriation of Digital Self-Monitoring Tools in Mental Health Care: Qualitative Analysis

Introduction

To improve access to and facilitate person-centered mental health care, digital technologies are increasingly being deployed to collect and share health-related data, deliver care, and support individuals in managing their health [Lupton D. The digitally engaged patient: Self-monitoring and self-care in the digital health era. Soc Theory Health. Aug 2013;11(3):256-270. [CrossRef]1,World Health Organization. World Mental Health Report: Transforming Mental Health for All. 2022. ISBN: 97892400493382]. The experience sampling method (ESM; also termed ecological momentary assessment) is a structured diary technique that enables individuals to collect detailed information about their mental health in their daily lives [Myin-Germeys I, Kasanova Z, Vaessen T, et al. Experience sampling methodology in mental health research: new insights and technical developments. World Psychiatry. Jun 2018;17(2):123-132. [CrossRef] [Medline]3]. Using smartphone apps, the ESM prompts individuals to complete brief self-assessments multiple times daily, assessing their emotional states, behaviors, and psychological symptoms. By allowing individuals to collect this information and share it with their clinicians, the ESM can ensure that therapeutic decisions are aligned with clients’ everyday experiences and needs. For example, by providing insights into which activities an individual commonly engages in, and how they respond to different daily life situations and stressors, clients and clinicians can make shared decisions about the focus of treatment [van Os J, Verhagen S, Marsman A, et al. The experience sampling method as an mHealth tool to support self-monitoring, self-insight, and personalized health care in clinical practice. Depress Anxiety. Jun 2017;34(6):481-493. [CrossRef] [Medline]4].

Despite its potential, the ESM, similar to many other digital mental health interventions [Peiris D, Miranda JJ, Mohr DC. Going beyond killer apps: building a better mHealth evidence base. BMJ Glob Health. 2018;3(1):e000676. [CrossRef] [Medline]5,Torous J, Myrick K, Aguilera A. The need for a new generation of digital mental health tools to support more accessible, effective and equitable care. World Psychiatry. Feb 2023;22(1):1-2. [CrossRef] [Medline]6], struggles to move from piloting and trialing to actual clinical implementation. To address this research-to-practice gap, scholars have made calls to adopt user-centered design strategies for developing digital mental health tools [Mohr DC, Weingardt KR, Reddy M, Schueller SM. Three problems with current digital mental health research... and three things we can do about them. Psychiatr Serv. May 1, 2017;68(5):427-429. [CrossRef] [Medline]7]. User-centered design emphasizes the importance of conducting in-depth analyses of users’ goals, needs, and context of use to inform technology design [Gulliksen J, Göransson B, Boivie I, Persson J, Blomkvist S, Cajander Å. Key principles for user-centred systems design. In: Seffah A, Gulliksen J, Desmarais MC, editors. Human-Centered Software Engineering — Integrating Usability in the Software Development Lifecycle. Springer Netherlands; 2005:17-36. [CrossRef] ISBN: 978-1-4020-4027-68]. Nonetheless, most evaluations of digital health technologies focus primarily on quantifiable, technical aspects such as system performance, usability scores, and cost benefits [Weermeijer JDM, Wampers M, de Thurah L, et al. Usability of the experience sampling method in specialized mental health care: pilot evaluation study. JMIR Form Res. Nov 21, 2023;7:e48821. [CrossRef] [Medline]9,Simons CJP, Drukker M, Evers S, et al. Economic evaluation of an experience sampling method intervention in depression compared with treatment as usual using data from a randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry. Dec 29, 2017;17(1):415. [CrossRef] [Medline]10]. However, an often overlooked but crucial step in implementing the ESM and self-monitoring tools is understanding how and why people integrate these technologies into their daily practices [Fidock J, Carroll J, Rynne A. Evaluating information systems: an appropriation perspective. In: Hart DN, Gregor SD, editors. Information Systems Foundations: The Role of Design Science. ANU Press; 2010:121-142. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt24h3z6.9 [CrossRef]11]. For example, what are the goals people hope technologies will help them achieve, what difficulties do individuals encounter when using new technologies, and what strategies do they apply to overcome technology use obstacles?

Studying the situated use of the ESM can provide essential knowledge into how users appropriate and make sense of these tools [Bal M, Benders J, Vermeerbergen L. “Bringing the covert into the open”: a case study on technology appropriation and continuous improvement. Int J Environ Res Public Health. May 23, 2022;19(10):6333. [CrossRef] [Medline]12,Carroll J. Completing design in use: closing the appropriation cycle [abstract]. Presented at: 12th ECIS; 2004; Turku, Finland. URL: http://aisel.aisnet.org/ecis2004/44 [Accessed 2025-02-18] 13]. Technology appropriation can be examined in three main stages [Carroll J. Completing design in use: closing the appropriation cycle [abstract]. Presented at: 12th ECIS; 2004; Turku, Finland. URL: http://aisel.aisnet.org/ecis2004/44 [Accessed 2025-02-18] 13]. The first stage involves users’ prior knowledge and expectations, which determine their initial willingness to adopt the technology. Expectations about potential benefits (eg, simplifying tasks) and the effort required (eg, time spent on training) are particularly crucial in shaping the initial interest [Chiu TML, Eysenbach G. Stages of use: consideration, initiation, utilization, and outcomes of an internet-mediated intervention. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak. Nov 23, 2010;10:73. [CrossRef] [Medline]14,Fidock JJ, Carroll J. The Model of Technology Appropriation: A Lens for Understanding Systems Integration in A Defence Context. ACIS; 2006. 15]. In the second phase, users explore and evaluate the technology’s capabilities, while becoming familiar with its functions. They adapt their practices to integrate the technology (eg, maintaining an internet connection), and adapt the technology to suit their needs (eg, disabling certain features or altering settings) [Carroll J. Completing design in use: closing the appropriation cycle [abstract]. Presented at: 12th ECIS; 2004; Turku, Finland. URL: http://aisel.aisnet.org/ecis2004/44 [Accessed 2025-02-18] 13]. They will test the technology’s applicability in different situations and determine what features are most useful to them. Finally, if users find that the technology has added value and helps them achieve their goals and tasks, they might develop new routines and workflows that allow them to integrate and use the technology in their daily practice, thus moving into the third stage of persistent use [Carroll J. Completing design in use: closing the appropriation cycle [abstract]. Presented at: 12th ECIS; 2004; Turku, Finland. URL: http://aisel.aisnet.org/ecis2004/44 [Accessed 2025-02-18] 13].

To date, the appropriation of ESM tools in health care has largely been overlooked. While one study has examined how individuals with back pain appropriated ESM tools for pain management [Kaur E, Delir Haghighi P, Cicuttini FM, Urquhart DM. Smartphone-based ecological momentary assessment for collecting pain and function data for those with low back pain. Sensors (Basel). Sep 19, 2022;22(18):7095. [CrossRef] [Medline]16], there is a lack of research in the field of mental health care. As a consequence, we have a limited understanding of how individuals with mental illnesses and their clinicians interact with and make sense of digital ESM tools, and what might lead them to adopt or abandon these technologies. However, understanding this is vital for facilitating successful implementation [Fidock JJ, Carroll J. The Model of Technology Appropriation: A Lens for Understanding Systems Integration in A Defence Context. ACIS; 2006. 15,Venkatesh V, Thong JYL, Xu X. Consumer acceptance and use of information technology: extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. MIS Q. 2012;36(1):157. [CrossRef]17]. To address this knowledge gap, we undertook a pilot implementation study, using the ESM tool “IMPROVE,” a clinical prototype tool informed by research examining clinicians’ and clients’ design preferences [Bos FM, Snippe E, Bruggeman R, Wichers M, van der Krieke L. Insights of patients and clinicians on the promise of the experience sampling method for psychiatric care. Psychiatr Serv. Nov 1, 2019;70(11):983-991. [CrossRef] [Medline]18,Weermeijer J, Kiekens G, Wampers M, Kuppens P, Myin-Germeys I. Practitioner perspectives on the use of the experience sampling software in counseling and clinical psychology. Behav Inf Technol. Feb 17, 2024;43(3):540-550. [CrossRef]19]. IMPROVE was used as a part of therapy following a 3-step intervention, in which clinicians and their clients could (1) personalize the tool to clients’ specific problems and situations, (2) self-monitor clients’ mental health and daily activities via an app, and (3) review the collected data in summarized graphs in an online dashboard. To inform the further development and implementation of clinical ESM tools, this paper aimed to evaluate participants’ (1) prior knowledge and expectations, (2) actual use in practice, and (3) potential future integration of ESM-based self-monitoring tools. Addressing these gaps in the literature will provide valuable insights into why and how clients and clinicians in mental health care choose to adopt or abandon digital self-monitoring tools in therapy.

Methods

Ethical Considerations

All participants provided written informed consent, and all procedures were approved by the medical ethics committee of KU Leuven (S64244). Participants were given a study ID to ensure anonymity, and interviews were pseudonymized during the transcription by removing personally identifiable information and replacing them with pseudo codes. Finally, participants were allowed to freely use the IMPROVE tool after completion of the study but were not given additional compensation.

Study Design and Recruitment

We conducted a pilot study within the University Psychiatric Center KU Leuven in Belgium in which we involved clients and clinicians in testing and evaluating IMPROVE. The research team was unable to access the clinic directly, due to COVID-19 restrictions. Therefore, invitations to participate were emailed to all psychiatrists and psychologists affiliated with the psychiatric center (N=142). The study aimed to enroll 12 clinicians, and initial invitations were followed by up to 2 reminder emails. For those interested, online informational sessions with the research team were organized. Participating clinicians were asked to recruit at least 1 client from their practice. By allowing clinicians to select clients, the referred sample provided a practical representation of the clients with whom clinicians were likely to use the tool within a real-life context.

The inclusion criteria were kept broad to reflect the diverse reality of clinical practice. To be eligible, clinicians needed to be certified mental health professionals and proficient in Dutch, which was the language the intervention was designed in. Clients had to be 18 years or older and also proficient in Dutch. To replicate real-world implementation, clients were asked to use their own smartphones. As a result, only clients owning a smartphone with at least 3G coverage were eligible to participate.

IMPROVE was run on the digital platform m-Path [Mestdagh M, Verdonck S, Piot M, et al. m-Path: an easy-to-use and highly tailorable platform for ecological momentary assessment and intervention in behavioral research and clinical practice. Front Digit Health. 2023;5:1182175. [CrossRef] [Medline]20]. To enable clinicians to use IMPROVE, they received a manual with instructions on using the tool in their practice (

Multimedia Appendix 1

IMPROVE training manual.

Figure 1

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Data Collection and Analysis

Due to COVID-19 measures, data were collected remotely via online surveys in RedCap (Research Electronic Data Capture, Vanderbilt University) [Harris PA, Taylor R, Minor BL, et al. The REDCap consortium: Building an international community of software platform partners. J Biomed Inform. Jul 2019;95:103208. [CrossRef] [Medline]21] and through Skype interviews (Version MSO; Skype Technologies). In some cases, poor connections affected the quality of the interview recordings; however, the overall data collection was not hindered by remote methods. Demographic information was collected at study enrollment and participants who completed the intervention were invited to participate in a semistructured interview (

Multimedia Appendix 2

Interview guides.

Table 1

Theme	Description
Prior knowledge and expectations	Participants talk about any prior experiences or knowledge they have regarding the ESMa or self-monitoring tools (analog or digital). Participants talk about their motivations and expectations related to using the ESM or self-monitoring tools and participating in the study.
Actual use in practice	Participants talk about how they used the IMPROVE tool and how they judged these experiences. Mentioning eg, what purpose they used it for, when, and how often they used it.
Potential future integration	Participants talk about their interest in using the IMPROVE tool (or similar tools) in the future. Participants talk about potential changes that they find would be relevant for future use and integration of the IMPROVE tool.

^aESM: experience sampling method.

Results

Participant Characteristics

Nineteen clinicians expressed interest in participating in the study, of whom 12 were enrolled. While a systematic record of the number of clients approached by clinicians was not maintained, at least 29 clients were invited, with 24 agreeing to participate. Of the enrolled participants, 8/12 clinicians (67%) and 17/24 clients (71%) completed the intervention; among these, 7/8 clinicians (88%) and 11/17 clients (65%) subsequently participated in an interview. A demographic summary of interview participants can be consulted in

Multimedia Appendix 3

Demographic summary.

Thematic Analysis

A complete overview of the themes and subthemes of the analysis and how frequently they were mentioned by participants can be found in

Multimedia Appendix 4

Overview of themes.

Previous Experience and Expectations

Individuals’ experiences and expectations are important indicators of their initial willingness to adopt technologies. While only 1 clinician had experience using digital self-monitoring tools, most clinicians and some clients had experience using analog self-monitoring or diary techniques. Some clinicians also had experience with different forms of digital tools within their practice (eg, online training platforms, video consultations, and virtual reality). Similarly, several clients had experience using mental health apps, eg for practicing breathing techniques and cognitive-behavioral therapy exercises. Despite their limited experience, clinicians generally expected that IMPROVE would offer benefits over analog registration methods, allowing them to more easily collect and summarize information about their clients. However, several clinicians also anticipated that there would be challenges and limitations for using the tool. The most commonly mentioned was that low digital literacy could be a barrier for both clients and clinicians (Clinician 0100 Textbox 1). Clinicians’ motivation for testing the tool was primarily driven by curiosity and the conviction that they need to master digital tools, as these are becoming increasingly dominant in the health care sector. Interestingly, most clients were primarily motivated by a wish to help and contribute to research but also expressed a curiosity toward what digital mental health tools might offer (Client 0501 Textbox 2). Some clients hoped that IMPROVE would allow them and their clinicians to get a better understanding of their mental health problems.

Actual Use in Practice

Participants’ willingness to test the IMPROVE tool was influenced by their initial expectations that digital self-monitoring would provide them with benefits and advantages. Below we describe how clinicians and clients used the tool in practice and how they evaluated its capabilities and contextual fit.

Step 1: Start-Up Session

Clinicians generally found that the time investment required to learn to use IMPROVE was too much considering the time they had available. Experiencing time constraints was also one of the most common reasons reported by clinicians who did not complete the intervention. Personalizing clients’ questionnaires in particular asked for extra time and effort from clinicians. Despite emphasizing that the personalization of the IMPROVE questionnaires made the tool more relevant, clinicians made limited use of the available personalization options. Most clients also expressed that personalization of the tool is desirable but that clinicians did not discuss this with them.

Furthermore, while most clinicians were convinced that using the IMPROVE tool would become easier with practice, many clinicians indicated that the complexity of the tool was too high. In particular, clinicians found that navigating the dashboard was not intuitive and that it was difficult to find things and set up the clients’ questionnaires. Thus, many experienced that they did not have adequate competencies to make full use of the tool; “I constantly felt I was doing something wrong,” 1 clinician explained. However, at the same time, clinicians made limited use of the training manual and expressed a wish for more in-person support. This was also reflected by several clinicians contacting the research team for additional support after the initial training (Clinician 0100,Textbox 1). Interestingly, some clinicians resolved their need for support by organizing training sessions with colleagues.

Step 2: Self-Monitoring

The majority of clients reported that they made an effort to comply with the notifications, but many found that the frequency of the self-assessments (10 notifications per day) was too high. A few clients indicated that they would consciously skip assessments because they did not consider it important to respond to all notifications. Conversely, some clients also mentioned that missing notifications would make them feel guilty and annoyed, or that the thought of missing assessments made them nervous and stressed (Client 0501, Textbox 2). Although clients reported that completing the assessments did not take them long, many experienced difficulties responding to the notifications within the fixed 15-minute response window. Several reasons for this were voiced, of which being occupied with work and other daily activities was the most frequent (Client 0802, Textbox 1; Client 0601, Textbox 3). Having an irregular day rhythm or sleep schedule that did not match the notification schedule, needing to carry one’s phone and ensure an internet connection, and feeling unwell or tired were also factors that made complying difficult. Importantly, clients who dropped out of the study also reported a lack of time, difficulties complying with the assessments, notifications stress, and feeling unwell as reasons for not completing the intervention.

Several clients found the practice of labeling and rating their emotions difficult. Some indicated that they were unsure whether they completed the self-assessments correctly and expressed a need for more guidance from their clinicians on how to respond to the assessments. Several clients also expressed a wish for more open questions that would allow them to describe their experiences in more detail, as they did not find that the default questions were sufficiently able to capture their experiences. Interestingly, while clinicians were not instructed to do so, some monitored their clients’ responses during the self-monitoring week as a form of remote monitoring of clients (Clinician 0600, Textbox 3).

Step 3: Data Feedback Session

To get the most out of the data feedback session, most clinicians reviewed their clients’ data in preparation for the session. Many felt that preparation was necessary for them to understand the data and be able to discuss it with clients. Many clinicians found it challenging to interpret and navigate the graphs, which they often perceived as overwhelming. This generally led clinicians to be selective in the data they would review and discuss with clients. All clinicians reviewed the data with their clients and some also encouraged their clients to give their interpretation of the data or to provide further clarification (Clinician 0100, Textbox 1). Similarly, clients indicated that the support of a clinician was crucial for them to make sense of their data. While most clients reported that they could understand the graphs, they also indicated relying on their clinician to help them interpret the data. These findings indicate that, despite challenges, most clinicians could provide useful feedback to their clients based on the self-monitoring data.

Potential Future Integration

Despite encountering challenges, both clinicians and clients described that the IMPROVE tool provided them with useful insights. Next, we will explore how these experiences influenced participants’ willingness to integrate and use digital self-monitoring tools in their future practice. Clinicians and clients were generally open to using digital self-monitoring tools again. Participants who expressed the greatest interest in continued use more often experienced an added value of using IMPROVE (see Textbox 3). This included having access to more detailed information about clients’ mental health, which helped create an overview and clarity, and identify focus points to discuss in therapy. Clinicians who had initial positive expectations and believed digital tools were important in supporting mental health care were also more willing to use digital self-monitoring again. The clinicians who were more hesitant reported more difficulties using IMPROVE and expressed a greater need for support (see Textbox 1).

Clients who expressed a low interest in using digital self-monitoring tools in the future also reported negative reactivity in the form of stress and increased negative emotions during self-monitoring (see Textbox 2). Interestingly, all these clients had high compliance during the self-monitoring. However, clients overall reported that the assessment frequency should be lowered to make future self-monitoring less burdensome. Moreover, some clients and clinicians expressed an interest in using the tool for extended periods to monitor progress and the effects of therapy. Finally, clients and clinicians also expressed a desire to adapt the self-assessment further and monitor factors more specific to the individual client.

Discussion

Principal Findings and Implications

To guide the successful implementation of digital self-monitoring tools in mental health care, it is pivotal to understand how people react, respond, and adapt to these technologies. We examined how clinicians and clients in a psychiatric center appropriated the ESM-based self-monitoring tool IMPROVE within their therapeutic practices. In line with existing theories, our results indicate that clinicians’ and clients’ willingness to adopt and integrate digital self-monitoring tools into their practice depend on the perceived balance between added benefits and the effort necessary to accomplish these [Venkatesh V, Thong JYL, Xu X. Consumer acceptance and use of information technology: extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. MIS Q. 2012;36(1):157. [CrossRef]17]. The main benefits identified in our study included better information about clients’ mental health, while system usability and assessment burden demanded extra effort from participants. Below we discuss the potential implications of this for the implementation of the ESM tools in clinical practice.

While some struggled more than others, all interviewed participants managed to reach a basic level of use of the IMPROVE tool within the intervention period. Furthermore, we observed a great interest and curiosity towards digital mental health tools, especially among clinicians. Many clinicians experienced that using IMPROVE added value and generated more clarity and focus in the therapy, by providing more detailed information about the clients’ mental health. Several clients also experienced these benefits. Our findings suggest that a collaborative effort between clients and clinicians is key to maximizing the experienced benefits of the ESM tools. While many clinicians struggled to construct a frame for the interpretation of clients’ data, several turned to their clients to help make sense of the data. Clients also stressed the importance of having a clinician support them in interpreting their data and doubted whether they would be able to do this themselves. Other studies similarly highlighted the value of patients providing clinicians with additional information about patient-generated health data to unveil the subjective meanings of the data [West P, Van Kleek M, Giordano R, Weal MJ, Shadbolt N. Common barriers to the use of patient-generated data across clinical settings. 2018. Presented at: CHI ’18; Apr 21-26, 2018:1-13; Montreal QC Canada. URL: https://dl.acm.org/doi/proceedings/10.1145/3173574 [CrossRef]25]. This indicates that collaborative data interpretation is an essential component in the clinical application of the ESM tools, which boosts the perceived usefulness of the tool. Therefore this component should be emphasized and strengthened in future implementation initiatives.

Most participants in our study expressed willingness to use the ESM or similar tools in the future, although many emphasized the necessity of making changes and improvements to the tool. This aligns with previous findings that clinicians and clients are generally interested in the ESM-based self-monitoring [Bos FM, Snippe E, Bruggeman R, Wichers M, van der Krieke L. Insights of patients and clinicians on the promise of the experience sampling method for psychiatric care. Psychiatr Serv. Nov 1, 2019;70(11):983-991. [CrossRef] [Medline]18,Weermeijer J, Kiekens G, Wampers M, Kuppens P, Myin-Germeys I. Practitioner perspectives on the use of the experience sampling software in counseling and clinical psychology. Behav Inf Technol. Feb 17, 2024;43(3):540-550. [CrossRef]19,de Thurah L, Kiekens G, Sips R, Teixeira A, Kasanova Z, Myin-Germeys I. Using experience sampling methods to support clinical management of psychosis: the perspective of people with lived experience. Psychiatry Res. Jun 2023;324:115207. [CrossRef] [Medline]26]. However, the need for further adaption was reflected by participants encountering several challenges in using and integrating IMPROVE into their practice. Many clinicians experienced difficulties navigating the tool’s functionalities, which made it difficult for them to start using the tool and apply more advanced features, such as personalizing clients’ questionnaires. Clinicians, therefore, expressed a need for more in-person support. Unfortunately, these types of usability issues are common in digital health tools [Broekhuis M, van Velsen L, Peute L, Halim M, Hermens H. Conceptualizing usability for the eHealth context: content analysis of usability problems of eHealth applications. JMIR Form Res. Jul 27, 2021;5(7):e18198. [CrossRef] [Medline]27]. A study examining usability problems of eHealth applications found that system navigation, interface design, and lack of built-in guidance and support accounted for 69% of users’ usability issues [Broekhuis M, van Velsen L, Peute L, Halim M, Hermens H. Conceptualizing usability for the eHealth context: content analysis of usability problems of eHealth applications. JMIR Form Res. Jul 27, 2021;5(7):e18198. [CrossRef] [Medline]27]. Furthermore, consistent with other research [Kabakus AK, Bahcekapili E, Ayaz A. The effect of digital literacy on technology acceptance: an evaluation on administrative staff in higher education. Journal of Information Science. 2023. [CrossRef]28,Jang M, Aavakare M, Nikou S, Kim S. The impact of literacy on intention to use digital technology for learning: a comparative study of Korea and Finland. Telecomm Policy. Aug 2021;45(7):102154. [CrossRef]29], our study indicated that technology literacy and attitude can influence willingness to use digital tools. More anthropological field research on mental health care workers’ existing technology habits and literacy might help inform the system design of the ESM tools and understand users’ context and capabilities. Similarly, engaging end-users in co-design processes could help tackle usability issues that could lead users to abandon the tools. Finally, our results show that adequate support for clinicians and clients is needed to facilitate the implementation of the ESM tools in mental health care. Especially in the early adoption phases, users should be supported in familiarizing themselves with the tools and integrating them into their work routines. Potential solutions could include more built-in guidance functions in the tool or establishing additional structures (eg, service centers) that can provide direct user support.

Furthermore, our findings emphasize that self-monitoring demands a lot of clients, and can be difficult and burdensome for people with mental health problems. While clients expressed a wish to comply with the self-assessments, they often found it practically challenging. In line with other self-monitoring studies [Ziesemer K, König LM, Boushey CJ, et al. Occurrence of and reasons for “missing events” in mobile dietary assessments: results from three event-based ecological momentary assessment studies. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth. Oct 14, 2020;8(10):e15430. [CrossRef] [Medline]30], we found that competing activities (eg, working) and technical issues (eg, device or internet access) were the most common reasons for missing assessments. To comply with the assessments, several clients had to change their phone habits, eg, ensuring that they always had their phone with them, and had notifications and internet connection on. As it is known that existing habits are important predictors of technology acceptance [Venkatesh V, Thong JYL, Xu X. Consumer acceptance and use of information technology: extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. MIS Q. 2012;36(1):157. [CrossRef]17], this need to change habits can become a threat for sustained clinical implementation of ESM tools. Furthermore, some clients reported negative reactivity to self-monitoring, which was associated with less interest in using the tool again. Other studies also found that while self-monitoring can be motivating and helpful, it can also become a stressful activity that clients feel obliged to comply with [Wienroth M, Lund Holm Thomsen L, Høstgaard AM. Health technology identities and self. Patients’ appropriation of an assistive device for self-management of chronic illness. Sociol Health Illn. Jun 2020;42(5):1077-1094. [CrossRef] [Medline]31]. This highlights the need to investigate how self-monitoring tools can be made less burdensome for users while still producing valuable information. Potential solutions could include the integration of passive monitoring [Medich M, Cannedy SL, Hoffmann LC, et al. Clinician and patient perspectives on the use of passive mobile monitoring and self-tracking for patients with serious mental illness: user-centered approach. JMIR Hum Factors. Oct 24, 2023;10:e46909. [CrossRef] [Medline]32,Saunders KEA, Bilderbeck AC, Panchal P, Atkinson LZ, Geddes JR, Goodwin GM. Experiences of remote mood and activity monitoring in bipolar disorder: a qualitative study. Eur Psychiatry. Mar 2017;41:115-121. [CrossRef] [Medline]33] or adaptive assessment schemes that allow for periods with lower and higher assessment intensity [Bucci S, Gumley A, Walters J, et al. CONNECT: using electronic devices (e.g. smartphones, smartwatches) to predict relapse of psychosis - research protocol. ISRCTN Registry. 2024. [CrossRef]34,King ZD, Yu H, Vaessen T, Myin-Germeys I, Sano A. Investigating receptivity and affect using machine learning: ecological momentary assessment and wearable sensing study. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth. Feb 7, 2024;12:e46347. [CrossRef] [Medline]35].

Limitations

The findings of the study should be interpreted considering the following limitations. One limitation is that the study relied on referral sampling, which might have influenced the representativeness and diversity of the sample. Furthermore, the study was conducted in a large psychiatric center of a university in Belgium. Clients and clinicians within different health care settings or with different demographic backgrounds might have different experiences of using digital self-monitoring tools. Another limitation is the potential overrepresentation of people with a positive attitude towards digital mental health tools. Several clinicians for example recruited clients who they expected were interested in using digital tools and had the necessary technical literacy. Furthermore, none of the participants who dropped out of the intervention participated in the interviews. However, using contact records data, we established that some of the challenges experienced by participants who were interviewed were also reported as reasons for dropout by participants who did not complete the intervention. Future research should aim to better understand the views of nonadoptors, identify the main reasons for nonadoption, and work towards tackling these barriers in the design and implementation of ESM self-monitoring tools.

Conclusion

ESM-based self-monitoring can provide clinicians and clients with useful information about how clients’ daily life activities correspond to fluctuations in their mental health. These benefits seem to increase when clinicians and clients engage in collaborative interpretation and sense-making of the clients’ data. Therefore, ESM tools have a clear potential to support a person-centered approach to mental health care rooted in clients’ daily life experiences. However, our study highlights that the effort required by clinicians and clients to integrate ESM tools into daily practice remains substantial due to system usability challenges and the burden of repeated assessments. Addressing these issues in future ESM tool developments will be crucial for successful implementation. One potential solution to tackle these barriers is enhancing user support. Another is modifying key features of ESM tools to better suit users and their contexts, such as reducing the frequency of assessment and data information load. Engaging end-users directly in this process through user-centered design approaches may ensure a better fit between the tools, their context of use, and user goals and ultimately facilitate better adoption.